For pre-nursing and allied health students (including mixed-majors courses). Cutting edge microbiology research for today’s learners. Tortora, Funke, and Case’s Microbiology, An Introduction brings a 21st. Microbiology, study of microorganisms, or microbes, a diverse group of generally minute simple life-forms that include bacteria, archaea, algae, fungi, protozoa, and viruses. The field is concerned with the structure, function, and classification of such organisms and with ways of both exploiting and controlling their activities.

• Historical background
• Types of microorganisms
• The study of microorganisms
  • Basic microbiology
    • Morphology
  • Applied microbiology
    • Food microbiology

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Microbiology, study of microorganisms, or microbes, a diverse group of generally minute simple life-forms that include bacteria, archaea, algae, fungi, protozoa, and viruses. The field is concerned with the structure, function, and classification of such organisms and with ways of both exploiting and controlling their activities.

The 17th-century discovery of living forms existing invisible to the naked eye was a significant milestone in the history of science, for from the 13th century onward it had been postulated that “invisible” entities were responsible for decay and disease. The word microbe was coined in the last quarter of the 19th century to describe these organisms, all of which were thought to be related. As microbiology eventually developed into a specialized science, it was found that microbes are a very large group of extremely diverse organisms.

Daily life is interwoven inextricably with microorganisms. In addition to populating both the inner and outer surfaces of the human body, microbes abound in the soil, in the seas, and in the air. Abundant, although usually unnoticed, microorganisms provide ample evidence of their presence—sometimes unfavourably, as when they cause decay of materials or spread diseases, and sometimes favourably, as when they ferment sugar to wine and beer, cause bread to rise, flavour cheeses, and produce valued products such as antibiotics and insulin. Microorganisms are of incalculable value to Earth’s ecology, disintegrating animal and plant remains and converting them to simpler substances that can be recycled in other organisms.

Historical background

Microbiology essentially began with the development of the microscope. Although others may have seen microbes before him, it was Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch draper whose hobby was lens grinding and making microscopes, who was the first to provide proper documentation of his observations. His descriptions and drawings included protozoans from the guts of animals and bacteria from teeth scrapings. His records were excellent because he produced magnifying lenses of exceptional quality. Leeuwenhoek conveyed his findings in a series of letters to the British Royal Society during the mid-1670s. Although his observations stimulated much interest, no one made a serious attempt either to repeat or to extend them. Leeuwenhoek’s “animalcules,” as he called them, thus remained mere oddities of nature to the scientists of his day, and enthusiasm for the study of microbes grew slowly. It was only later, during the 18th-century revival of a long-standing controversy about whether life could develop out of nonliving material, that the significance of microorganisms in the scheme of nature and in the health and welfare of humans became evident.

Spontaneous generation versus biotic generation of life

The early Greeks believed that living things could originate from nonliving matter (abiogenesis) and that the goddess Gea could create life from stones. Aristotle discarded this notion, but he still held that animals could arise spontaneously from dissimilar organisms or from soil. His influence regarding this concept of spontaneous generation was still felt as late as the 17th century, but toward the end of that century a chain of observations, experiments, and arguments began that eventually refuted the idea. This advance in understanding was hard fought, involving series of events, with forces of personality and individual will often obscuring the facts.

Although Francesco Redi, an Italian physician, disproved in 1668 that higher forms of life could originate spontaneously, proponents of the concept claimed that microbes were different and did indeed arise in this way. Such illustrious names as John Needham and Lazzaro Spallanzani were adversaries in this debate during the mid-1700s. In the early half of the 1800s, Franz Schulze and Theodor Schwann were major figures in the attempt to disprove theories of abiogenesis until Louis Pasteur finally announced the results of his conclusive experiments in 1864. In a series of masterful experiments, Pasteur proved that only preexisting microbes could give rise to other microbes (biogenesis). Modern and accurate knowledge of the forms of bacteria can be attributed to German botanist Ferdinand Cohn, whose chief results were published between 1853 and 1892. Cohn’s classification of bacteria, published in 1872 and extended in 1875, dominated the study of these organisms thereafter.

Microbes and disease

Girolamo Fracastoro, an Italian scholar, advanced the notion as early as the mid-1500s that contagion is an infection that passes from one thing to another. A description of precisely what is passed along eluded discovery until the late 1800s, when the work of many scientists, Pasteur foremost among them, determined the role of bacteria in fermentation and disease. Robert Koch, a German physician, defined the procedure (Koch’s postulates) for proving that a specific organism causes a specific disease.

The foundation of microbiology was securely laid during the period from about 1880 to 1900. Students of Pasteur, Koch, and others discovered in rapid succession a host of bacteria capable of causing specific diseases (pathogens). They also elaborated an extensive arsenal of techniques and laboratory procedures for revealing the ubiquity, diversity, and abilities of microbes.

Progress in the 20th century

All of these developments occurred in Europe. Not until the early 1900s did microbiology become established in America. Many microbiologists who worked in America at this time had studied either under Koch or at the Pasteur Institute in Paris. Once established in America, microbiology flourished, especially with regard to such related disciplines as biochemistry and genetics. In 1923 American bacteriologist David Bergey established that science’s primary reference, updated editions of which continue to be used today.

Since the 1940s microbiology has experienced an extremely productive period during which many disease-causing microbes have been identified and methods to control them developed. Microorganisms have also been effectively utilized in industry; their activities have been channeled to the extent that valuable products are now both vital and commonplace.

The study of microorganisms has also advanced the knowledge of all living things. Microbes are easy to work with and thus provide a simple vehicle for studying the complex processes of life; as such they have become a powerful tool for studies in genetics and metabolism at the molecular level. This intensive probing into the functions of microbes has resulted in numerous and often unexpected dividends. Knowledge of the basic metabolism and nutritional requirements of a pathogen, for example, often leads to a means of controlling disease or infection.

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ABOUT

Influenza! Plague! Ebola! Anthrax! You've seen them in the movies and on TV — microbes are everywhere. But did you also know that microbes helped in the Gulf oil spill? That one day your car may run on gas produced by microbes? That fungi produces antibiotics that may one day save your life? Microbiology majors take a closer look at all these issues and more. Are you interested in infectious disease? At Clemson, you can pursue a general microbiology degree or you can choose to do a major concentration in biomedicine. If you choose to follow the general microbiology curriculum, you'll take one class in each of these three areas — biomedicine, environmental, food and industrial microbiology. Microbiologists seek to describe and characterize organisms in structure, function and processes of reproduction, growth and death at cellular and molecular levels. They are also interested in the ecology of microbes and the interaction with higher-level organisms.

FAST FACTS

• Clemson is home to a world-class advanced light imaging facility that supports education and research.
• Undergraduate research opportunities are available in medicine, biofuels, bioremediation and more.
• Our graduates go on to medical, dental and pharmacy school as well as graduate school for their Ph.D.
• We offer a concentration in biomedicine, which is great for students planning to pursue a career in the medical field.

WHAT YOU'LL STUDY

Bachelor of Science in Microbiology: With a wide choice of electives, the microbiology curriculum allows you the flexibility to take courses for a minor in a different discipline, which will help you prepare for a career in your specific interest area. The general microbiology degree requires a course from a select list in each of the following areas: biomedicine, environmental, and food safety, industrial and technology microbiology.

Bachelor of Science in Microbiology-Biomedicine Concentration: Suited for students planning postgraduate studies, especially in infectious disease. This concentration allows students to take more courses related to human health and disease. In addition, you'll be required to take additional biomedical courses that you'll choose from a predetermined list.

Popular Minors

• Chemistry
• Biochemistry
• Food Science
• Genetics
• Legal Studies
• Modern Languages
• Philosophy
• Psychology
• Wildlife and Fisheries Biology

• Similar Majors

EXPERIENCES BEYOND THE CLASSROOM

Outside the classroom, microbiology majors participate in various clubs, conduct independent research projects, gain experience in internship positions, and find time to study abroad.

Research

You'll have a chance to conduct research through a wide offering of Creative Inquiry teams. These student teams take on research under the guidance of faculty mentors and often present their findings at conferences or in publications.

Study Abroad

Each year students travel to Costa Rica to work under the supervision of physicians and dentists. Students gain hands-on medical and/or dental experience and learn about tropical diseases and the country's health care system.

Microscopy

The Clemson Light Imaging Facility is a state-of-the-art light-imaging suite that houses advanced light microscopes equipment from Leica, Nikon and Zeiss.

Service Learning

Gain teaching experience by serving as an undergraduate teaching assistant in laboratories offered by the Department of Biological Sciences.

AFTER GRADUATION

Microbiology Cheat Sheet Pdf

Your college decision isn't really about the next four years. We get it. It's about what doors are opened by your degree and whether those opportunities are what you had envisioned for yourself. Here's a snapshot of what life after graduation looks like for some of our most recent students.

RECENT EMPLOYERS

• Associate Scientist

  Pfizer

• Technical Associate

  Milliken & Company

• Laboratory Assistant

  BASF

• Microbiologist

  S.C. Department of Health and Environmental Control

• Environmental Microbiologist

  Bausch & Lomb

• Lab Assistant

  LabCorp

• Environmental Maintenance Technician

  Alcami Corporation

RECENT POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

• Ph.D. Neuroscience

  Johns Hopkins School of Medicine

• Master of Public Health

  University of Michigan

• Ph.D. Biomedical Sciences

  Florida State University

• Pharm.D.

  University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

• J.D.

  University of South Carolina

• Ph.D. Microbiology and Cellular Sciences

  University of Florida

• MD

  Medical University of South Carolina

• Ph.D. Microbiology and Immunology

  Baylor College of Medicine

COMMON CAREER AREAS

• Research and Development
• Basic and Applied
• Quality Control
• Administration
• Grant Writing
• Health Care
• Medicine
• Dentistry
• Optometry
• Podiatry
• Pharmacy
• Veterinary Medicine
• Allied Health
• Occupational Therapy
• Physical Therapy
• Medical Technology
• Nuclear Medicine
• Organismal Biology
• Botany and Plant Sciences
• Zoology, Ecology and Wildlife
• Marine and Aquatic
• Systematic and Taxonomy
• Entomology
• Genetics
• Education
• Formal Classroom Teaching
• Informal Teaching and Outreach

Microbiology Openstax

Used with permission from the University of Tennessee.

FIND OUT MORE

Have more questions or want more information? Fill out the form below, which goes directly to the following department contact. If you’d also like to receive general University information from Clemson’s admissions office, please follow the link to the right and sign up to join our mailing list.

Microbiology Quizlet

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Microbiology Resume

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